(3) the amniOl:horionic membrane. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original Essay Honors Biology Seminar Professor Scott January 11, 2018 Honors Biology Research Paper The study of life, or biology, is a process that has been going on for thousands of years. Humans' interest in who we are and the world around us gave us the original explorers and the information we have today. The foundations of different biologists such as Charles Darwin for evolution, help us to delve deeper and explore to expand our human boundaries. Like many biologists, the ultimate goal of the article is to address how the cell differentiated, how it functions, the stages of life, and how it obtained the genes. The cell is made up of different parts that serve as an organ for a body. These parts are known as organelles. The cell wall is a rigid layer of material that surrounds the cell of plants and some other eukaryotes such as fungi. Its main goal is to protect and support cells. For example, it helps plants not burst their cell because there is a rigid wall to prevent this from happening, unlike in most of the animalia kingdom. The cell wall can be made up of chitin in fungi and a fibrous substance known as cellulose in plants. The chloroplast is found in plants and photosynthetic algae. Light-dependent photosynthesis is based on the capture of sunlight for photosynthesis while light-independent photosynthesis is the synthesis of new light in the creation of glucose. The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane found in eukaryotic cells. The cell membrane allows for diffusion, the movement of elements from a high concentration to a low concentration. The three types of transport are passive, active and osmosis. Passive transport is when objects move with the concentration gradient, from high to low. Simple passive transport occurs when molecules can easily slide through the phospholipid bilayer to reach their destination, either inside or outside. They don't even require ATP because they move with the concentration gradient. Small, uncharged molecules, as well as glucose, fatty acids, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and gases are some of the elements that can pass using simple passive transport. Facilitated passive transport is the transport of molecules from a high to a low concentration using protein channels and pumps. These molecules are usually larger and the specifics to reach a certain area therefore require assistance. The second type of transport is active transport. During active transport, ATP is used to move molecules against the concentration gradient, molecules move from low to high concentration. Large, charged molecules (ions) usually need them. The only specialized pump where this happens is the ATP pump where the opposite diffusion occurs. Finally, because water is necessary for the body to function, it can use pumps known as aquaporins or simply be permeable across the cell membrane by simple diffusion. The latter is known as osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules such as water across a semipermeable membrane into an area with a higher solute concentration such as salt, to achieve homeostasis with the use of osmotic pressure to obtain an isotonic solution . The cytoplasm is the region between the cell membrane and the nucleus. It is a clear, thick, gel-like fluid that constantly moves to help thedifferent processes of the cell. The two main anaerobic respiration processes take place here. Glycolysis is the first form of respiration that occurs in the cell, in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis is the process that converts glucose, C6H12O6, into pyruvate, to produce 2 ATP. It can be both aerobic and anaerobic, producing approximately 2 ATP. Fermentation is a form of anaerobic respiration in which only glucose is present. The products include gases, water and acids but not ATP. Mitochondria are also another important ATP energy generator of the cell. The two main respiration processes that occur there are the Krebs cycle and energy generation through the electron transport chain (ETC). The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix of mitochondria and breaks down pyruvate into carbon dioxide during extraction reactions. In total, the Krebs cycle produces approximately 1-2 ATP. The final stage of cellular respiration is the electron transport chain (ETC). ETC is a series of molecules embedded in the mitochondrial membrane, it is the only process that produces most of the necessary ATP. It occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria to convert the remaining ADP from the Krebs cycle into ATP. The electrons pass through different molecules until they finally react with oxygen and protons to form water. The result is approximately 32-34 ATP, water and carbon dioxide. The vacuole is a eukaryotic membrane-bound organelle that stores excess. it is present in all plant and fungal cells and in some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially closed compartments filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, although in some cases they may contain solids that have been eaten. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these. The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies depending on the needs of the cell. The genetic key, known as DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is kept in the nucleus. DNA contains the code for an entire cell. The nucleus houses the DNA because external conditions in the cytoplasm will destroy the DNA; then only different RNAs will leave the cell to carry out the processes. DNA replication is the process by which DNA is copied to create two identical daughter pairs. The first step is that the DNA unwinds and separates using helicases, a protein that helps unwind the DNA; hydrogen bonds are broken. The second step is replication. The first step of replication is that DNA splits into two strands forming a Y-shaped formation known as replication fork replication. A homologous half is necessary for the fork tines to combine and form a new pair of filaments. One of the separate strands is called the leading strand, which is constantly used for DNA synthesis, while the other strand is responsible for the synthesis of the leading strand. The third step is binding the corresponding bases to match the split DNA to compress them. After replication reaches the end of the DNA strand, it terminates, leaving replicated DNA. The nucleus and ribosomes are both present in a process known as protein synthesis. Protein synthesis is the process by which cells produce the necessary proteins they need. The first part of the process is known as transcription and occurs in the nucleus. The first DNA unwinds and unfolds, breaking hydrogen bonds in the process. Thymine is replaced with uracil. The corresponding mRNA strand will bind to the two split strands of DNA. and finally the mRNA will exit through the pores of the nucleus. The second part of the process is known as translation. It occurs in the ribosomes thatfound outside the floating nucleus or attached to the RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum). The mRNA produced by transcription enters the ribosome which in turn contains rRNA (ribosomal RNA). The tRNA (transfer RNA) comes and translates 3 RNAs at a time leaving behind one amino acid for each triple. The amino acids then link with peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. Finally, the chain folds into a protein with the help of the Golgi apparatus and the RER. A cell is a singular, functional unit of an organism. Different types of cells have different types of organelles to carry out life-sustaining processes. The two different types of cells that exist today are eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are single-celled organisms without organelles or other membrane-bound units. The four main organelles present in prokaryotic cells are the plasma membrane (gateway), the cytoplasm (transport + respiration), ribosomes (protein synthesis), and genetic material (such as DNA and RNA). Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, are unicellular or multicellular organisms that mostly have specialized membrane-bound organelles. Examples of eukaryotic organelles would be the nucleus (a membrane-bound sac that contains DNA that gives commands), the chloroplast (a plant membrane-bound organelle that contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis), the lysosome (an animal membrane-bound organelle which breaks down excess and worn-out organelles with digestive acid...mini stomach), the vacuole (a membrane-bound organelle that stores excess nutrients, water and waste that has not left the cell) and the mitochondria (a membrane-bound organelle that turns food into ATP energy). The similarities between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are that they have chromosomes/DNA/RNA, plasma membrane, perform cell division processes (mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission), and perform protein synthesis with the use of ribosomes. The differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are that prokaryotic organelles are much simpler than eukaryotic organelles. Prokaryotic organelles include the cytoplasm (for travel), ribosomes (for protein synthesis), and a cluster of DNA that is centralized but lacks any type of membrane. Eukaryotic cells contain multiple membrane-bound organelles; the nucleus is a membrane that surrounds and protects DNA unlike prokaryotic plasmids, mitochondria are a double-membrane organelle that performs cellular respiration, and the chloroplast is a membrane-bound organelle for plants and plant-like protists that perform photosynthesis with chlorophyll inside. The endosymbiont theory, which stated that prokaryotes are other prokaryotes, and the autogenic theory, which stated that prokaryotic cells folded and began to specialize into different cells, both demonstrate the fact that prokaryotic cells evolved much earlier and are more simple cells of eukaryotic cells. The four major eukaryotic groups are plantae, animalia, fungi, and protists. Organisms in the kingdom animalia are multicellular and have no cell walls or photosynthetic pigments. All organisms in the kingdom animalia have some type of skeletal support and have specialized cells. Furthermore, these organisms have cellular, tissue, organ, and system organization. All organisms in the kingdom animalia reproduce sexually rather than asexually. All terrestrial plants as well as aquatic plants are found in the kingdom plantae. Organisms of the kingdom plantae produce energy through photosynthesis. Additionally, organisms in the kingdom plantae have a cell wall and chlorophyll that captures light energy for photosynthesis, or the synthesis of light to produce glucose. TheThe fungal kingdom is responsible for the decomposition of dead organic material and helps recycle nutrients through ecosystems. Additionally, most vascular plants (plants with xylem-phloem systems) rely on symbiotic fungi to grow. For plants, symbiotic fungi are found in the roots of all vascular plants and provide them with important nutrients. For animals, fungi provide many types of drugs such as antibiotics and penicillin, but they also cause many diseases. Fungal diseases are difficult to treat because fungi are similar to organisms in the animal kingdom. Examples of fungal diseases include ringworm (a common fungal skin infection that often resembles a circular rash) and mucormycosis (a rare infection that primarily affects people with weakened immune systems). The last major kingdom of the eukaryotic domain are the protists. A protist is a eukaryotic organism that does not fall under the characteristics of animalia, plantae, or fungi. The kingdom of protists includes unicellular organisms. Organisms of the protist kingdom need to live in an aquatic environment. The three types of organisms in the protist kingdom are protozoa, algae, and fungus-like protists. Protozoans obtain food through phagocytosis, which involves engulfing prey with mouth-like tools.structures. Algae contain chlorophyll and feed themselves through photosynthesis, just like plants. Fungus-like protists absorb nutrients from their environment directly into their cytoplasm (phagocyte). Slime molds are an example of fungus-like protists that commonly live in decaying wood. Malaria, a worldwide disease in tropical climates, is caused by an animal protist known as Plasmodium. In the ocean, many plant-like protists live on the surface where they carry out photosynthesis. There are great similarities and differences between the eukaryotic kingdoms. Animals, plants and fungi are eukaryotic and mostly multicellular while protists are eukaryotic and unicellular. All except the animal kingdom can reproduce both sexually and asexually because they can only carry out sexual reproduction with the use of gametes. Plants can reproduce through asexual processes known as budding and fragmentation, and sexually through the use of gametes. Most fungi reproduce sexually through the use of gametes or asexually through fragmentation and budding. Finally, protists reproduce both sexually like animals and plants through the use of gametes, and asexually through binary fission. Plants and plant-like protists are autotrophs (meaning they produce their own food to use for energy) while animals, fungi, and animal-like protists are heterotrophs (meaning they consume food to use for energy). Plants contain a cell wall composed of cellulose, fungi contain a cell wall composed of chitin, and some plant-like protists may contain a cell wall composed of cellulose. The two main subcategories of eukaryotic cells are the classification of its cells into somatic or non-somatic cells, also known as sex cells. Somatic cells are all cells in the body not used for reproduction. They contain 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs each in the human body being a diploid cell. Examples of somatic cells include bone marrow cells, blood cells, brain cells, intestinal cells, etc. Sex cells, otherwise known as gametes or germ cells. Since it is used for breeding, they are haploid. Being haploid means having 23 chromosomes each, so it guarantees that a human being is created by giving him a total of 46 chromosomes. An exampleof sexual cells includes the egg and sperm. Most somatic cells reproduce through a process called mitosis. Mitosis is a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that occurs when a parent cell divides to produce two identical diploid daughter cells. During cell division, mitosis specifically refers to the separation of duplicated genetic material carried into the nucleus. Meiosis on the other hand is a process that divides a cell into four daughter cells that are haploid, meaning they contain half the number of chromosomes of the diploid parent cell. Kingdoms that have both somatic and sexual cells are animals, plants, fungi because protists are only one cell and reproduce sexually through conjugation. Stem cells are unspecialized cells. The two types of stem cells are embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are stem cells that have the ability to become anything they want, while adult stem cells only have the ability to be a certain type of cell. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they can grow into whatever stem cell they want to be. The process of cellular differentiation for the stem cell begins when a division signal activates certain protein genes needed by the cell. The stem cell will then divide; half in a specific cell (like a blood cell) and the other half in the niche. The appearance of a certain gene (such as the blood cell gene) on a cell is gene expression. Then the released signals transform the divided cell into a fully specialized cell (like the blood cell). As new signals arrive, they multiply exponentially in the cell. To complete the transformation, most of the organelles and nucleus of the original stem cell are lost. The cell differentiation process is now finished and the new specialized cell will be sent to the area of ​​need. This is the process by which a stem cell becomes a different cell, or the process of cell differentiation. The cell cycle is the cycle of cell division that occurs in the cell immediately prior to division/reproduction, as well as the reproduction of each new cell. using mitosis. The cell cycle is the period of time during which a new cell grows and completes mitosis. After a cell is created, it enters directly into the G1 phase, or synthesis phase, where rapid growth and metabolism occurs to develop the new cell: centrioles appear. The S phase, or synthesis phase, is when DNA replicates. Specific and accurate DNA replication is necessary to prevent genetic abnormalities that often lead to cell death and disease. G2 or second growth phase matures, the cell and organelles are doubled so it can enter the mitotic phase. In the M, or mitotic, phase, the cell divides leaving behind 2 diploid cells from the original diploid cell. M phase itself included telophase, which forms a new membrane of DNA around the daughter cell, and cytokinesis, which is the separation of the cytoplasm. Once cytokinesis is finished, the process of mitosis is performed. Different genes control how fast (how slow or fast) cell reproduction occurs. After the signal, the proto oncogene activates the cell cycle, so the accumulation of cells occurs over time. Too much of this can be a cause of cell buildup or tumors. Then another signal is sent to stop the accumulation; with genes known as tumor suppressors. Cell cycle equilibrium ismaintained by the same signaling between both genes at different sites or by the internal clock. The imbalance of these signals in the forming cells is what causes cancer. Cancer involves an uncontrolled cell that develops into a tumor and spreads throughout the body. Factors for this include chemical exposure, heredity with people having cancer, exposure to radiation and UV rays causing skin cancer. All of these can mutate the proto-onco or tumor suppressor gene which results in abnormal amounts of cells. The two types of cell reproduction are mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is a eukaryotic process that occurs in its somatic cells. Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction that creates identical parent-daughter diploid cells. The ultimate goal is simple: create two diploid cells by separating the chromatids. The first phase of mitosis is the interphase in which a diploid (2n) cell grows and prepares for reproduction. Then in prophase the nuclear membrane dissolves and the copied chromosomes pair up. In metaphase, the chromosomes align centrally at the cell's equator, known as the mitotic spindle. Subsequently, in anaphase, the sister chromatids are separated into the chromosomes and a different nuclear membrane begins to form. Finally, in telophase the cell pinches in the center and two new diploid (2n) cells are formed when the cytoplasm is pinched using the last process of mitosis known as cytokinesis. The second process of cell production is known as meiosis. It is used for the process of creating sex cells. The process to create 4 haploid gametes is part I: separating the homologous pair and part II: separating the chromatid. In Meiosis Part I, interphase allows cells to grow in order to reproduce. In the prophase phase the chromosomes are visible because the nuclear membrane has dissolved. Then the chromosomes align together in metaphase forming a homologous pair. In anaphase, the homologous pair separates and goes each way. In cytokinesis and telophase, the cell divides in two by moving the chromosomes of the homologous pair to one side and the other to the other. This phase of being is like the beginning of mitosis and now we have to separate the chromatids. Since the cell is already developed, interphase is skipped and goes directly into prophase. In prophase II the nuclear membrane is dissolved again. In metaphase II, the chromatids align in the center. In anaphase II, sister chromatids are separated from the chromosomes and a different nuclear membrane begins to form. Finally, in telophase the cell pinches in the center and four new haploid (n) cells are formed when the cytoplasm is pinched using the last process of mitosis known as cytokinesis. The products of meiosis contain half as many chromosomes in their cells as in mitosis because the products of meiosis (egg and sperm cells) are then combined to form what is known as a zygote (the first fertilized egg containing all the chromosomes needed for growth ). Meiosis, unlike mitosis, leads to trait variation in four ways. The first way is in the production of haploids. When haploid cells are produced, ? of the mother's gene is added to ? Dad's genes lead to different combinations of genes. The second way is with independent assortment that occurs in metaphase I. During the alignment of central cells for separation into different cells, the way they arrange themselves during gamete production helps make a baby more like one of the his parents or the same. The transition to prophase can occur with any gene, which makes the possibilities endless. Finally, nondisjunction, in which an extra chromosome goes to one side, can lead to several somatic/sex-related disorders. Genes are.