Cancer begins to form in the body when certain cells begin to grow out of control at an alarming rate. Neuroblastoma is an aggressive cancer that affects the nervous system that contains the brain, spinal cord, and nerves that spread throughout the body. It is most commonly found in the adrenal glands which sit above the kidneys. Neuroblastoma can affect children as young as ten years old, but is most common in children between the ages of one and five. Neuroblastoma begins to develop in the first nerve cells of the embryo1. Neuroblastoma targets the autonomic nervous system that extends throughout the body. For parents of children who are diagnosed with or about to have neuroblastoma, it is important to know the anatomy of the nervous system and kidneys, how to diagnose it, the staging of neuroblastoma, and all the treatments involved. We say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original Essay The anatomy of the nervous system and kidneys is very complex. The nervous system is a large organization of nerves and glands throughout the body. The nervous system consists of two main parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system2. The central nervous system consists of two parts, the spinal cord and the brain. The brain is the main control unit that sends commands to the rest of the body, and the spinal cord is the path these commands follow. The brain and spinal cord are made up of billions of neurons. Neurons are specialized cells that connect to each other and ensure that the brain's message reaches its destination2. The peripheral nervous system has two main parts and two subcategories. The two parts of the peripheral nervous system are the nerves and ganglia outside the brain. The two subcategories of the peripheral nervous system are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is what controls voluntary actions such as walking or eating. The autonomic nervous system is what controls involuntary actions like breathing and heartbeat. The peripheral nervous system is what connects the central nervous system to the limbs and organs of the body. When the brain sends a message, it travels along the spinal cord to the appropriate nerve, then along the nerve to the appropriate body part, passing through some ganglia along the way. The kidneys are a bean-shaped organ that functions as the body's waste disposal system. About a third of the blood that leaves the heart passes through the kidneys before reaching the rest of the body. The kidneys sit against the muscular posterior wall of a human's abdominal cavity. The kidneys are not directly mirrored, the left kidney is slightly higher than the right kidney. The main parts of the kidney include the renal capsule, renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pelvis, and approximately one million nephrons3. The renal capsule is the fibrous connective tissue that forms the outermost covering of the kidneys. The renal capsule is primarily responsible for protecting and maintaining the shape of the kidneys. The renal cortex is made up of granular tissue. The main purpose of the renal cortex is to separate the renal capsule from the renal medulla3. The renal cortex also provides an area for glomerular capillaries, arterioles, and venules. The renal medulla lies just within the renal cortex. The renal medulla is the area where most filtration occurs. Within the renal medulla there are several pyramid-shaped masses of tissue called renal pyramids. Inside each renal pyramid is a dense network of nephrons that work together tofilter the blood and expel waste from the body. Nephrons are what separates and filters blood and water3. At the end of each nephron is a cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule. Bowman's capsule surrounds a tuft of capillaries called glomeruli. The glomeruli are what transport blood to and from the kidneys. Each part of the nephron is permeable to different molecules making it a very efficient filter. The renal pelvis is what connects the kidney to the rest of the body3. It is also what contains the hilum, or the concave part of the kidney. The hilum is where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit the kidney. The renal arteries are those that supply blood to the kidneys and originate from the abdominal aorta. Above each kidney is an adrenal gland which is vital to a person's well-being. The adrenal glands regulate the hormones we need in times of extreme stress. Each adrenal gland is only two and a half inches long and one inch wide4. The adrenal gland has three parts which are: the capsule, the cortex and the medulla. The capsule is the outermost layer composed of fat. The main purpose of this layer is to provide protection to the innermost parts. The cortex or second layer constitutes eighty percent of the adrenal gland4. The cortex completely surrounds the innermost part of the medulla. The cortex has three zones; the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis. These regulate the excretion of fluids and minerals. The medulla is largely responsible for how the human body regulates stress. There are three different catecholamines secreted by the medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. These three hormones are called neurotransmitters. When a body is subjected to stress, the brain sends a signal along the spinal cord to the adrenal medulla to start secreting neurotransmitters: this is the human stress mechanism3. Neuroblastoma causes certain problems to appear in many aspects of the body. Symptoms include abdominal pain, changes in bowel movement, sensation of a lump under the skin that is not painful to the touch, chest pain, wheezing, bone pain, back pain and weight loss5. If a person experiences any of these symptoms, they should see a doctor immediately. If your doctor suspects something is wrong, he or she will order further tests. Radiological imaging plays a very important role in noticing and diagnosing a neuroblastoma tumor. Normally the first step is a physical examination5. From there a blood or urine sample is often taken to test hormone levels. Pictures are then taken to see if a neuroblastoma is present using ultrasound, x-rays, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography5. Ultrasound is the first step in young children because it is quick, easy and does not involve radiation. Ultrasound bounces sound waves to create images of the inside of the body. A small wand or transducer is placed on the skin with gel on top. The transducer produces sound waves and then picks up the echoes as they bounce off various parts of the body. This creates a black and white image on a computer screen. Ultrasound is the first step in young children because it is quick, easy and does not involve radiation. X-rays might be used if your child has symptoms, but it is not clear what causes them. However, the images may not be clear enough or have enough detail to be of much use. If your child has already been diagnosed with neuroblastoma, x-rays may be helpful to see if the cancer has spread to the bones. A chest x-ray may be ordered if your doctor thinks it may have spread to your lungs. TomographyComputerized, known as CT, is a test that creates detailed cross-sectional images of the body. It takes multiple photos and rotates around the body, giving the doctor a very in-depth picture of the body's soft tissues. Computed tomography is often used to look for neuroblastomas in the chest, abdomen, and pelvic regions. Magnetic resonance imaging, known as MRI, uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create images so there is no radiation. MRI provides a more detailed image of soft tissues such as the brain and spinal cord, which makes it better for observing neuroblastomas. However, due to the degree of immobility, length of the test, and loud noises, it is more difficult to use on young children. Positron emission tomography involves injecting a small amount of radioactive sugar into the blood. One hour after the injection the patient is placed on the table where a special camera is used to create images of the whole body. Because cancer cells grow rapidly, they absorb a large amount of radioactive sugar. If imaging results show a mass that could be a tumor, a tissue biopsy is ordered to figure out what it is. During a biopsy, the doctor removes part of the mass. There are two different types of biopsies: incision biopsy and needle biopsy. An incision biopsy involves removing part of the mass through a cut in the skin. A needle biopsy involves removing part of the mass through a needle. During a needle biopsy, computed tomography or ultrasound may be used to guide the needle to the exact area of ​​the mass. After obtaining the samples, the sample is then sent to the laboratory to be viewed under the microscope. There are various treatment plans for neuroblastoma depending on the stage and location of the tumor. In children under six months old, with a small tumor on the adrenal gland, the normal treatment plan is observation alone. This gives the doctor the opportunity to study the tumor and see if it will go away on its own. If the patient is older than six months and the tumor is in an appropriate location, surgery will be considered. In most cases, surgery can remove the entire tumor and lead to remission. If the tumor is too close to internal organs or other vital structures, it may not be possible to remove the entire tumor. During the surgery, the surgeon also removes small lymph nodes near the adrenal glands to examine them for cancer cells. If the tumor is inoperable or part of it cannot be removed, chemotherapy is used to attack the remaining tumor cells. Chemotherapy is a type of treatment that uses certain cancer drugs to create a standardized chemotherapy regiment6. Drugs used to attack and kill rapidly dividing cells. There are several cells in the human body that divide rapidly naturally, such as hair and bone marrow. Chemotherapy also attacks these cells causing the death of hair follicles and white blood cells. There are numerous drugs used to attack a neuroblastoma which include; Cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, vincristine, doxorubicin, etoposide and topotecan6. These drugs are used intravenously or into a vein through a needle. The doctor determines the dosages based on the stage and risk group in which the patient is. Neuroblastoma goes through a progression of certain stages. Staging includes Stage I, Stage IIA, Stage IIB, Stage III, Stage IV and Stage IVS5. Stage I occurs when neuroblastoma is found in one area and can be.